A manuscript has a seven-page Results section. Every paragraph opens with “Table 3 shows”, reads out each number in the table, then ends with a sentence such as “this may be because students were unfamiliar with the new format”. The reviewer’s comment is short: too much and too little. Too much because it repeats the tables, too little because it never says which finding matters most.
The Results section has one job: to present what you found, in an order that helps readers answer your research questions, with enough numbers for them to judge for themselves. Explaining why, comparing with other studies and drawing implications all belong in the Discussion.
Order by question, not by the order you ran the analysis
The order you ran things is usually the software’s order: descriptives, assumption checks, correlations, regression, extras. Readers do not need that journey. They need the answer to each question or hypothesis, in the order you stated them at the end of the Introduction.
- Sample description and participant flow (who was included, who was excluded and why).
- Main result for the first question.
- Results for the second and third questions.
- Secondary and sensitivity analyses, clearly labelled as such.
Use subheadings that mirror the questions: “Use of the digital library by year of study”, not “ANOVA results”. In qualitative work, subheadings are usually the names of the main themes.
Text, table or figure
| Format | Use when | Avoid when |
|---|---|---|
| Running text | Only one or two numbers, or one key result needs emphasis | More than about four numbers must be compared at once |
| Table | Readers need exact values across many variables or groups | There are only two data cells |
| Figure | A pattern, trend, interaction or distribution is the message | Readers need to look up precise values |
Each result should appear in one format only. If the numbers are in a table, the paragraph states what matters most about that table and points to it; it does not copy it out.
Result sentences: lead with the finding, not the table
Compare two sentences:
- Weak: “Results are presented in Table 2. Table 2 shows that the mean score of group A was 7.2 and of group B was 6.4.”
- Better: “Students in the blended course scored about 0.8 points higher on the final exam than those taught face to face (95% CI 0.3 to 1.3; Table 2).”
The second states the finding at once, gives its size, unit and precision, and still cites the table. The general rule: make the phenomenon the subject of the sentence, not the table or the test.
Numbers that must be there
- Sample size for each analysis, especially when missing data change n between tables.
- Effect sizes in meaningful units: score differences, percentages, odds ratios, regression coefficients.
- Confidence intervals or standard errors.
- Exact p values (p = .03 rather than p < .05), unless very small (p < .001).
- Test statistics and degrees of freedom in the format your journal requires.
Keep decimal places consistent and sensible: percentages to one decimal place, correlations to two. Do not print four decimals just because the software did.
Non-significant results still get reported
If your second hypothesis was not supported, report it with the same detail as the ones that were: effect size and confidence interval. Avoid “there was no difference”. Write “we found no statistically significant difference (difference 0.2 points; 95% CI −0.3 to 0.7)”. The interval shows readers whether your data can rule out a meaningful effect.
Where Results ends and Discussion begins
Signs that you are discussing inside the Results:
- Phrases such as “this may be due to”, “this suggests” or “consistent with the work of”.
- Citations of other studies.
- Recommendations for managers or teachers.
Exceptions exist: some journals use a combined “Results and Discussion” section, and qualitative papers often weave interpretation into the presentation of themes. Read the author guidelines and the three most recent papers in your target journal to learn the convention.
Qualitative results: evidence and coverage
In qualitative work, each theme needs a sentence saying clearly what the theme is, a description of its reach (which participants it appeared among, what variations exist), and two or three well-chosen quotations. Quotations are evidence, not a substitute for analysis; avoid long runs of quotes with none of your own sentences linking them. Avoid vague quantifiers such as “most” unless you say how many participants that means.
Checklist before you submit
- Subheadings follow the order of your research questions.
- Each result appears once only, in text, table or figure.
- Each paragraph opens with a finding, not a table label.
- Every main result has n, an effect size and a confidence interval.
- Non-significant results are reported in full.
- No citations and no “this may be because”.
- Numbers in the text match numbers in the tables, checked one by one.
A quick test: underline the first sentence of every paragraph in your Results. If someone reading only the underlined sentences can grasp all your main findings, the section works. If all they read is “Table 2 shows”, rewrite those opening sentences before you touch anything else.
Câu hỏi thường gặp
What should be included in a Results section?
The Results section presents what you found, organised by research question, with essential numbers such as sample sizes, effect sizes and confidence intervals. It does not explain causes or compare your findings with other studies.
Should I repeat table data in the text?
Not in full. The text should state the most important finding from the table, perhaps with one or two key numbers, and refer readers to the table for detail.
Do I need to report non-significant results?
Yes. Report them with the same detail as other results, including effect sizes and confidence intervals, and avoid claiming there was no difference.
Can you cite other studies in the Results section?
Usually not, because comparison with other work belongs in the Discussion. Exceptions include citing the source of an analysis method or writing for a journal that uses a combined Results and Discussion section.
What tense should the Results section be written in?
Findings are usually reported in the past tense, while statements that point to tables and figures use the present tense. Whatever you choose, be consistent throughout.
